Why these efforts would produce results different from current patterns of narcotic and other depressant drug use is not clear, however, since it is for just this stress-reducing effect that soldiers and laboratory animals presumably self-administer a narcotic in what we label as addiction. Intelligence is such an interesting and popular as controversial concept, since there is no very clear and exhaustive definition of what is or is not. This optimism centers around several areas of research and speculation in the neurosciences: the discovery of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norepinephrine and of endogenous opioid peptides (endorphins); the potential relationship between these substances and schizophrenia, depression, addiction, and pain; and the genetic predisposition to mental disorders transmitted through the balance of these chemicals in the body. For example, addicts have often been identified as having personality syndromes involving passivity, a negative outlook on life, and a readiness to form dependent relationships other than those connected with drugs (Chein, Gerard, Lee, & Rosenfeld, 1964). Both psychologists have written about addiction; both attempt to expand what has been a pharmacological concept to areas of behavior other than those involving drug use. New York: Pocket Books, 1970. The single most galvanizing concept today in abnormal psychology is vulnerability, or a childs inbred susceptibility to schizophrenia (cf. TheNew York Timesweekly science section, for example, published the following articles in 1979 on physiological and brain research that had behavioral implications: Chemical Curbs Memory Losses (January 9), Chemical Signals Linked to Behavior (May 29), and Studies Relate Physical Causes to Delinquency (June 26). What is Reductionism? . The topic of drug addiction is good ground for making such comparisons, since the fact that addiction obviously engages both chemical and human inputs has made it the object of both pharmacological and psychological scrutiny. In this statement Cummings rejects on the basis of his practice the usefulness of the theoretical distinctions he has previously argued for accepting. Many of the discussions that take place within psychology are not, technically, psychological discussions, but rather philosophical. 1-2. New York: Harper & Row, 1979. Gross, M. L.The psychological society. . Indications that the American Psychological Association as an organization is increasingly supportive of reductionist approaches comes from the APA Master Lecture Series. Burns. In R. H. Blum, et al. Tips And Advice Of Psychologists. A child called Noah. One of the first issues in the eighties of the modish magazineNew Yorkfeatures on its cover an article called Medicine for the Eighties: Better Living Through Chemistry (1980), which lists 17 drugs to keep you happy, healthy, and sane. These include an endogenous peptide that can serve as the prototype for a generation of safe, natural sleeping pills; a hormone that overcomes psychological impotence; an endorphin painkiller 200 times more powerful than morphine, [yet] nonaddictive; norepinephrine and serotonin to eliminate aggression; a peptide that may one day cure obesity; peptides that heighten powers of concentration; a hormone that stimulates memory, lost, for example, in an alcoholic blackout; a drug that blocks the brain receptors which produce fear symptoms and can thus stop such things as stage fright; and so on. For these individuals, narcotics perform pain-relief functions that occur naturally for most people through endogenous morphine (endorphin) production. It is based on the idea that all phenomena can be reduced into smaller aspects, including your. Morgan makes no attempt to ascertain whetheror howrunning addicts differ neurologically from nonaddicted runners or from nonrunnners. Many of these men were able to give up enormous heroin habits with surprising ease when they returned home (Zinberg, 1974). The two models most often used to account for the more common appearance of depression in women are social psychological in that both relate social factors to the observed sex-linked psychological differences. Time, April 2, 1979, pp. Is there a recipe for happiness? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1977,86, 103-126. 74-82. In another popular work by the father of an autistic boy (Kaufman, 1976), parents seeking assistance for their child also found established psychological treatment ineffective and often cruel. In terms of this model, girls are reared to seek security from significant others and to doubt their self-worth when social reinforcement from such people is not forthcoming. In particular, instances have been publicized in which prominent people have become addicted to Valium and other sedatives or tranquilizers that were prescribed to them by doctors (see Gordon, 1979). For example, an article by neurologist Richard Restak (1977) inSaturday Review reports. . For example, explanations of psychological disorders are often biologically reductionist, as genes and neurochemical imbalances are offered as the main cause. Saturday Review, March 5, 1977, pp. Four days when both water and solution were available were scattered throughout this period, and a choice was also given on several occasions following the period of habituation. Schachter, S. Pharmacological and psychological determinants of smoking.Annals of Internal Medicine, 1978,88,104-114. Blum & Blum, 1969; McClelland, Davis, Kalin, & Wanner, 1972; Zinberg & Harding, 1979). It is more of a philosophy or a faith in the ultimate nature of things. Robitscher, J. We may wonder whether there will continue to be a psychologyone that accepts human sentience and self-regulationto counteract this magical vision of life. What brought about this substantial miscalculation was the failure to understand that those who become addicted welcome the elimination of troubling sensation and the dulling of awareness that all of these drugs produce. but actually prevents them from happening. From 70 to 80 hours a week, members of the family and a paid helper attempted to relate to the boy through his own autistic means of expression (such as rocking back and forth). Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980. There is, however, an alternative view of psychology that contradicts many manifestations of reductionism. This boy had lost his father, and Garmezy cited a speech the boys mother made in which she inspired her son with the belief that he and she both would be able to survive the fathers death. While Freudian psychology has been the dominant single approach to psychotherapy in the 20th century, its appeal has been limited by the intensity of self-examination it requires as a part of treatment. The term is primarily utilized in positions which make an effort to have an understanding of human heritage, civilization, or mental processes with regard to animal behavior patterns or physical principles. In psychology, an accepted method is that by which psychological phenomena are reduced to biological phenomena, with the intention of proving that psychological existence is simply a product of biological functions. Jaffe, J. H. Drug addiction and drug abuse. At the time this work stood out against the notion that chemical and physiological inputs are universal and inflexible determinants of mood and behavior. Psychologists advance theories of sex development. Radnor, Pa.: Chilton, 1974. Although we cannot expect such definitive indications of the validity of psychological theories, we do look to success in treatment as a sign of their worth. 1 views. Gray, J. One of the biggest problems in psychologys quest to understand the human being has been the tendency to fall back on reductionism as a means of explaining why human beings are like they are. Schizophrenia; Vast effort focuses on four areas. PubMedGoogle Scholar, Hayes, N. (1995). The fields that incorporate this expansionsome of them newly definedinclude psychophysiology, psychopharmacology, neuropsychology, behavior genetics, and biological psychiatry, along with one reductionist discipline, sociobiology, that is not experimental or laboratory based. Today the pendulum has swung the other way, and we are at the end of a long downswing in the popularity of psychodynamic psychotherapy. Key Behavioral Theories Stimulus-Response Theory Conditioning Pavlov's Dogs and Classical Conditioning "The whole is more than the sum of its parts" Reductionism is the point of view that human behavior can successfully be resolved into its biological components, components that may then in turn be described as chemical and electrical events. Reductionists say that the best way to understand why we behave as we do is to look closely at the very simplest parts that make up our systems, and use the simplest explanations to understand how they work. The reductionist perspective can be very useful, and nevertheless it entails a danger to be taken into account: it can generate circular explanatory frameworks when trying to give an understanding of what happens in a complex and changing phenomenon, as we will see. Berntson, G. G., & Cacioppo, J. T. (2004). The rats were divided into two groups: one in which the rats were isolated in cramped quarters identical to normal laboratory conditions, the other in which the rats were given expansive and pleasant surroundings that they shared with other rats. It is because of this learned pattern that women are more dependent and more frequently experience loneliness and depression. In doing so he has come into conflict with the prevailing medical model of alcoholism as a disease, which holds that alcoholics have a physiological, genetic weakness that causes them to drink to excess whenever they are exposed to alcohol. In H. Shaffer M. E. Burglass (Eds. Arieti, S., & Bemporad, J. A growing consensus is emerging that the best hope for understanding and dealing with psychological problems lies with work being done in genetics, biology, and the neurosciences. His APA presidential address (Cummings, 1979) outlined his uncommonly successful treatment methods for addictions using cognitive, behavioral, and experiential techniques. Gordon, B.Im dancing as fast as I can. A breakthrough mentality now exists among many biologists, neurologists, and psychologists, who feel that we are on the verge of discoveries in the fields of biology, genetics, and the neurosciences that will remove some of our most persistent human problems. Yet less than 10% of the original narcotic-using group showed signs of drug-dependent behavior stateside, prompting the investigators to declare that contrary to conventional belief, the occasional use of narcotics without becoming addicted appears to be possible even for men who have previously been dependent on narcotics (Robins, Davis, & Goodwin, 1974, p. 248). Reductionism in Psychological Theory. Electroshock treatment follows approximately the same kind of thinking. Eddy, N. B., & May, E. L The search for a better analgesic. Jessor, R., Young, H. B., Young, E. B., & Tesi, G. Perceived opportunity, alienation, and drinking behavior among Italian and American youth. Psychology is not applied biology nor is biology applied chemistry." Disciplines such as cybernetics and systems . Washburn (1978), for example, rejects the majority of sociobiological theorizing because it proposes individual genes to explain such social phenomena as monogamy, alcoholism, crime, altruism, and so on, when the behavior incorporated under these labels is so diverse and inconsistently defined. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1969. Yet, in a reversal from other trends of thought identified in this article, our cultural climate currently disapproves of biologically based explanations for personality distinctions between males and females and between the races. The experimenters habituated the rats to a morphine solution by offering them only this solution to drink for 53 days. The learned helplessness model (Seligman, 1974) is more general, but has been found to have special relevance to women. Psychology is a field of research that aims to explain many things: from the behavior of buyers to the most effective learning methods, from the way in which drug use affects social relationships and an infinity of issues that do not They have too much to do with these. Thus while it makes sense of some data that were previously undigestible by pharmacological descriptions of addiction, it does not add to their ability to explain other phenomena related to human drug use. Basically, any plot of reality in which there is a living being learning certain habits and behaviors (voluntarily or involuntarily) psychology has a gap. Reductionism in learning psychology. Inconsistencies in the work of Schachter, Pomerleau, Garmezy, and others are a sign that reductionist approaches have not been well integrated with existing knowledge in psychology, including often the research of such psychologists themselves. The extent of the rise in contemporary reductionism is indicated by the amountand kindof coverage that biochemical research on human behavior receives in the mass media, including our most respected mass circulation periodicals. A psychology that accepts and accounts for subjective human experience is presented as a counterpoise to the reductionist thrust. ),Critical issues in psychiatric diagnosis. A strong cultural influence is apparent through observations that the diagnosis of depression is increasingly frequent in our society and that depression appears from 1.5 to 3 times as often in women as it does in men (a ratio that also varies across cultures; Weissman & Kierman, 1977). Alexander, B. K., Hadaway, P. F., & Coambs, R. B. Rat Park chronicle. Whether or not patients participate in psychodynamic therapy as well, undoubtedly some of those treated with drugs are not able to change the cyclic and unsatisfying nature of their intimate relationships. The women who are typically the patients in these cases also ideally undergo psychotherapy to increase their awareness of the patterns their relationships follow. Theory reductionism: the suggestion that a newer theory does not replace or absorb an older one, but reduces it to more basic terms. Monthly Women'S Popular Science Magazine On Psychology. . In this period, the German authorities declared that the only legitimate research for the alienist was pathological anatomy of the nervous system (Bromberg, 1975, p. 133), and autopsies of the insane were widely carried out in the United States as well as in Germany. Kosterlitz, H. W. Endogenous opioid peptides and the control of pain.Psychological Medicine, 1979,9, 1-4. Both of these cases of autism testify to the work psychology should be doing and is not. Garden City, N.Y.: Anchor Books, 1976. In the last century treatments for insanity included strapping people into a centrifugal rotator (based on the idea that insanity was caused by insufficient circulation of blood to the brain) and shocking their systems by dunking them in cold water. For Personal Growth. 31-36. Garden City, N.Y : Doubleday, 1979. It was thus especially interesting when a group of social-pychologically oriented researchers studied the effects of setting variables on the self-administration of morphine in rats (Alexander, Coambs, & Hadaway, 1978). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1970,15, 215-222. As has been noted, the disease conception of alcoholism is a widely accepted notion of a behavior disorder that is determined by physiological and genetic factors. 1; 3. Now, reversing the position he took in his early research, Schachter (1978) argues for a model of cigarette addiction that is purely physiological in nature and takes into account only the effect of the drug on the users system. Do not; because of reductionism, It would have confused a description of the effects that a global system has on the pieces of the brain with the causes of what is seen in that global system. Journal of Psychedelic Drugs, 1979,11, 289-297. American Journal of Epidemiology, 1974,99, 235-249. The powers of psychiatry. The meaning of addiction in our lives. Types of seizures: why do they occur and what causes them? One book that gained attention in the late seventies was Grosss (1978)The Psychological Society, which builds from a standard list of the studies that have shown psychoanalytic therapyand conversational therapies generallyto be of doubtful effectiveness into an argument for genetic and biological causation and treatment of mental disorder. In a section of his article entitled Physiologic Mechanisms of Running, Morgan (1979) employs indirect evidence to argue that running influences the central nervous system at a cellular level (p. 58). This means that any drug which is effective for analgesic or related purposes will by definition be addictive, since it is this very experience the person seeks in an addiction (Peele, 1978). In psychology, a common form of reductionism is that in which psychological phenomena are reduced to biological phenomena, so that mental life is presented as merely a function of biological processes. Eventually the family broke through and removed the child into their own world, thus producing a rare successful outcome for a condition that has defied any general strategy of treatment. The woman invested a relationship with a man she knew briefly with tremendous emotional significance. Most research on human narcotic users has had the severe drawback of studying people who had drawn attention to themselves through their maladaptive life-styles. If the cure is chemical, Judith is convinced, then what is being cured must be some biological abnormality. In turn, if we study the components of a phenomenon, we will conclude that this phenomenon can only change in a limited number of ways, given that its components determine the routes of change through which the whole can pass. Saturday Review, February 21, 1976, pp. Garmezy, N.Vulnerable and invulnerable children: Theory, research, and intervention. Provided by the Springer Nature SharedIt content-sharing initiative, Over 10 million scientific documents at your fingertips, Not logged in This explanation sounds very natural and convincing , with which it can be taken as an objective fact alien to philosophy, but in reality it is far from explaining the neurobiological basis of intelligence. Unable to display preview. New York Times, November 13, 1979, Part 3, pp. Proponents of the more sophisticated reductionist arguments outlined in the previous section may expect to find that helplessness or other learned response tendencies have explicit correlates in the nervous system. Psychological Online Magazine. If not, why do those who become addicted to drugs simultaneously display such traits? New York: Basic Books, 1978. Psychopharmacology, 1978,58, 175-179. . Ockhams razor: A historical and philosophical analysis of Ockham s principle of parsimony. British Columbia Medical Journal, 1980,22, 54-56. Cummings, N. A. Some have tried to trace this difference in the sexes to biological differences such as hormones or X chromosomes. The addiction-prone individual would then be made neurologically identical to the individual who has superior resistance to addiction. The reductionism is a framework of interpretation of reality through which everything that happens in a system (whatever it is, from a company to a human brain) can be understood by studying individually its "pieces", its components. Pomerleaus summary of the evidence on the disease concept stands as among the strongest and most reasonable refutations of that idea (Pomerleau, Pertschuk, & Stinnett, 1976). On these choice days, the isolated rats drank far more morphine solution than did the social rats (p<.001)so much so that there was virtually no overlap between the populations. In: Psychology in Perspective. Scarf, M. From joy to depression: New insights into the chemistry of moods. Studies relate physical causes to delinquency. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); REDUCTIONISM: "Reductionism strives to prove that psychological processes are simply a product of biological functions. See also: identity theory, materialism, epiphenomenon. This resolution of the respective domains of the biological and the social sciences has much appeal. Washburn, S. L. Human behavior and the behavior of other animals. When this occurs, psychology and psychiatry will be subsumed by the field Restak calls psychobiology. In J. T. Cacioppo & G. G. Berntson (Eds. The concept behind phrenologythat specific areas of the brain correspond to the various components in a persons characterfinds a strong parallel in the concept underlying modern psychosurgery. Pharmacological accounts have typically ignored the finding from field studies of narcotics use that many people who take in substantial amounts of narcotics do not become addicted (cf. This is usually taken to entail that all phenomena (including mental phenomena like consciousness) are identical to physical phenomena. Alexander, B. K., Coambs, R. B., & Hadaway, P. F. The effect of housing and gender on morphine self-administration in rats. Specific, when reductionism is applied to psychology or the neurosciences, this risk is relatively high.if(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[300,250],'yestherapyhelps_com-medrectangle-4','ezslot_6',116,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-yestherapyhelps_com-medrectangle-4-0'); The result of this drawback is that, many times, reductionism is resorted to due to technical and methodological limitations and when interpreting the data obtained through this research, it "forgets" that the decision to isolate a problem in its relatively simple parts was a philosophical action, and not objective or scientific. The mid-19th century was such a time, and it was believed that insanity was on the verge of being cured. Such shifts in theoretical developments often leave psychologists traditional concerns dangling. Chemical signals linked to behavior. This reductionist trend of thought, as well as having major scientific implications, affects popular attitudes toward self-regulation in key areas of human functioning. New York: Harper & Row, 1976. It organizes behavior into exact, discrete categories; by drawing physical connections between behavior and the nervous system, it offers compact causal explanations; finally, and most important to its appeal, reductionist thought holds out the promise of clearcut remedies to problems that otherwise seem painfully beyond solution. Zubin & Spring, 1977). American Psychologist, 1978,33, 405-418. Shaffer, H., & Burglass, M. E. Reflections and perspectives on the history and future of the addictions. The examples of reductionism given in this article thus far have come from the expansion of the medical and biological sciences into what had previously been the domains of psychology and psychoanalysis. Its notmeyou see; its my biochemistry. (p. 31). How to identify the biological processes on which the intelligence of each person exists? In his contribution to the 1975 Master Lecture Series session on developmental psychology, Norman Garmezy employed the vulnerability concept to make the argument for including genetic factors as primary determinants of childhood schizophrenia. Despite the considerable resources invested in it, pharmacological research devoid of an awareness of the psychological needs of the addict and his or her social setting has succeeded only in creating new drugs to which people may become addicted. ", You may be interested: "Parts of the human brain (and functions)". Garmezy used as a climactic example in this paper a description of an invulnerable child (one highly resistant to mental disorder). Thus pharmacological theories of addiction that have focused on the addictive characteristics of various drugs have not been able to deal with the diversity of usage patterns found with these drugs. It is also possible to conceive that if stress responses in the nervous system were to be completely identified, then these could be eliminated directed in war settings or ghettos, where addiction is especially likely. The 4 types of love: what different kinds of love are there? New York: Raven Press, 1978. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 1976,37, 849-867. . Archives of General Psychiatry, 1977,34, 98-111. Dr. Peele is the author of 14 books. And finally, there were the expected optimistic articles on opiate receptors and endorphins (Chemistry of Pain Begins to Emerge, May 1) and tranquilizer receptors (Researchers Tracking Brains Own Tranquilizers, April 10). Let's see what it consists of and what implications and risks it can have in the field of psychology. What if the intelligence was based on the coordinated work in real time of millions of neurons distributed throughout the brain, in turn maintaining interactions with other nerve cells and with the substances that reach them through the blood vessels? No doubt many activities affect the central nervous systemhow this does or does not lead to addiction, and for which individuals addiction appears, are the important questions. New York: Free Press, 1972. Related Videos. Gestalt Psychology, thus, was the first psychology school that mentioned the debate between holism and reductionism. So far, researchers have carefully avoided hyperbole in their descriptions of the endorphins. This is the belief that the study of psychology is intended to make sense of the world as it is experienced by human beings and that any psychological analysis or treatment which fails to incorporate individual personality and subjective needs or situational and cultural variables is bound to be incomplete. Philosophy provides an epistemological and conceptual framework that we use to interpret and produce data, and that previous phase is not a scientific task; rather, it has to do with defending a point of view and arguing why it is better than other philosophical positions.if(typeof ez_ad_units != 'undefined'){ez_ad_units.push([[728,90],'yestherapyhelps_com-box-3','ezslot_2',114,'0','0'])};__ez_fad_position('div-gpt-ad-yestherapyhelps_com-box-3-0'); This is something that happens in all sciences, because all of them are based on philosophical foundations that normally have been discussed for decades. O. Robins, L. N., Davis, D. H., & Goodwin, D. W. Drug use by U.S. Army enlisted men in Vietnam: A follow-up on their return home. There is no right or wrong answer, but both approaches have different assumptions, and psychologists, researchers and students need to be aware of . The promise of new analgesics that will be synthesized along the lines of endorphins, but that will not be addictive because they derive from chemical compounds which occur naturally, in the body (cf. Thus genetically related populations have been shown to have different rates of alcoholism depending on their degree of assimilation from a culture with a low alcoholism rate into a culture with a high alcoholism rate (Jessor, Young, Young, & Tesi, 1970). holism and reductionism psychology. In George Orwells1984, one finds a society in which trauma and despair have been eliminated, while curiosity and emotions such as caring and love exist in only vestigial forms. Social impact theory reduces obedience down to its 3 elements. Science, 1976,193, 1081-1086. 41-42; 44. It is in this way that 1984 will be upon us, brought by futurists, medical technocrats, and the cultural elite. It is the belief that we can understand the whole by understanding the parts. Download preview PDF. Rodins paper emphasizes the physiological mechanisms in obesity and grew out of her work with Schachter on the situational cues overweight people use in evaluating their bodily states to determine if they are hungry (see Schachter, 1971). 2022 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. Today it regularly confuses investigations of contributory factors in the basic sciences with complete accounts of the behaviors and mental states that these factors influence. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. . In other cases, reductionism is the best approach to a problem. The Goldstein hypothesis continues to account for addiction with essentially one factor. Since the turn of the century, American pharmacology has sought drugs that can relieve pain (along with anxiety and tension) without being addictive (cf. New York: Morrow, 1980. Chein, I., Gerard, D. L., Lee, R S., & Rosenfeld, E.The road to H. New York: Basic Books, 1964. Currently the type of reductionism that is of most interest in psychology claims that all behaviours should be reducible to biology (Oppenheim & Putnam, 1958; Peele, 1981), meaning that most mental phenomena (consciousness) are equated with biological phenomena. Essentially, the whole shebang can be boiled down to one thing that explains it all. Medical researchers tend to frown on overenthusiastic claims about miracle cures and wonder drugs. Yet behind the scenes in medicine today, waves of high excitement are being generated by a group of biochemical agents called endorphins. Blau, T. Torque and schizophrenic vulnerability: As the world turns. Potency in the ultimate nature of things disadvantages and advantages that will be analysed psychological Makes its own tranquilizers # x27 ; s term is reductionism in that! 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