Representation, imitation, and resemblance 3. 2000. There are many variables that enter into overall reactions to aesthetic objects, including some that might vary with the kind of objects in question. Indianapolis: Hackett. Or, does it require more extensive and more strenuous immersions with multiple perspectives that cover a stretch of countryside? Something similar happens with certain works of history, journalism, as well as the nonfiction novel, such as Truman Capotes In Cold Blood. Bell has often been criticized for failing to provide a nonvacuous conception of significant form and for confining aesthetic experience to the apprehension of form. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. However, there are a number of flaws in Ridleys view that render it unsatisfactory. 3. The first point to note is that understood in terms of HI, it is a very different account from the one originally proposed. For a more ambitious attempt to identify first art along somewhat similar lines, see Stephen Davies (1997, 2000). Call this property of ordinary seeing existence. However, if the painting is representational, Representation: Depiction 187 then in some sense I see more. There is a distinction between valuing something and its being valuable. 1998b. These are two different things: one can experience (hear) music as expressive when it is not, and one can experience (hear) music as expressive of one state when it is expressive of another. Gaut, who is the chief proponent of the normative version of this argument, prefers to speak of a work failing to merit a prescribed response. Kivy, Peter. Notice one more thing: if you want to know what makes a fishing rod a good one, it wont be very illuminating to be told that people have valuable experiences with it. A forger of a Rembrandt selfportrait may intend that his work be regarded in many ways as the original is correctly regarded without thereby creating another artwork (Sartwell 1990, 157). It is the feature-selecting interpretation that accomplishes this understanding. It seems obvious that any building can be evaluated aesthetically, as if it was a work of art, and even this is always relevant to its evaluation as a building. The first objection is that HI fails to meet the requirement that, in music, expressiveness is typically heard rather than inferred. A second important belief within the constructivist paradigm is that artworks and other objects of interpretations lack a fixed nature (Margolis 1995, 80) or an essence. Indicated structure: The use of an abstract structure by an artist at a time in an art-historical context where the time is time the work is created, and the context is the artists cultural world at this time. However, there also appear to be counterexamples to the idea that we have an aesthetic defect whenever a work is unworthy of a prescribed response. Existence is not just another property, but is the condition for having properties. He is clearly historically backgrounded and uses this in emphasizing Wordsworths pantheism. All this will result in reading my remark as a request for help, which identifies its utterance meaning as well as successfully realizing my intention. Artistic Value 231 I said above that the fact that artworks offer unique experiences does have some significance in an argument for the irreplaceability of the value we receive from individual works. It is also virtually impossible to read a lyric poem without taking it to express an attitude or emotion toward (a possibly fictional) someone or some (possibly fictional) state of affairs. Here are some lines from the poem. We are all familiar with being moved, sometimes deeply moved, by a fictional story. Whether or not we place positive value on the way of life or ideal expressed, we value the achievement of expressing it. If the make-believe view is going to successfully elucidate seeing-in, it must be successful in its own terms as an account of depiction. One of its aims is to create an imaginary world for our contemplation and enjoyment. In two dimensional visual art, the chief, though not the only means of representation, is depiction. What remains to be seen is whether an items value as art always depends on its ability to provide aesthetic experience. The reason is that it is a standard feature of such works that they investigate ethical aspects of societies, cultures, traditions, and individuals in ways that explore real options for us. The claim of the persona theorist is that it can be extended to other art forms, in particular to music. Couldnt we arrive at the conceptions given to us in works in other ways, and, if so, doesnt art become replaceable? Expressiveness in Music Again Applied to music, the view now being proposed is that a musical passage is expressive of an emotion, if the best hypothesis of an ideal listener is that the composer intended the emotion to be heard in the music. This is because this view promises to capture the three intuitions behind the objections to the claim that some musical and literary works are abstract or context-independent structures: namely, that these works are created, that different works can share the same structure, and that some of their essential properties derive from context. The same is true for the experience afforded by the expressive 104 Chapter Five properties of works. The Beautiful, the Dainty, and the Dumpy. British Journal of Philosophy, 35:31729. Art and morality 10. But the rule is that the audience can know about but not alter the world of the fiction. Painting life 3. There are expressive properties like sad, joyful, angry, or serene. Even if one reads a poem as the utterers unintentional expression of an emotion or attitude (as some poems can surely be read), one will still interpret the poem at face value as intending us to take the utterance as such an expression. An aesthetic conception of the value of literature. A representation of an F is usually not an F. So when we say we see a woman in a painting arent we just saying that we see a representation of a woman, which of course we can do while noticing other features of the painting? Feeling for the Fictious. British Journal of Aesthetics 24: 20616. New York: Dover. It follows that, if ideal observers may have blamelessly different sensibilities, then they may just not agree on their aesthetic descriptions either. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World. Irreplaceability would seem to be guaranteed if at least part of the value of an artwork is unique to that work. The effect is enhanced by the materials that are assembled into complex, round, and cornered shapes that are echoed in the pools, courtyards, gardens, and even in the benches and tables. Art is intrinsically final, that is, appreciated for its own sake. Of these reasons, the last is the most controversial, since not everyone agrees that artworks have the degree of autonomy hypothetical intentionalism attributes to them. Consider the idea that colors are lower order ways of appearing, an idea that we have to understand before we can recognize higher order ways of appearing. Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 183202. This idea will be discussed further in the next section. The poem does not hold back in depicting the brutality of war. Zangwill, Nick. Most significantly, there are now two different chapters on topics related to representation instead of the one chapter in the 1st edition. . In fact, the chapter will argue for something stronger, namely, that some artistically valuable properties are found only in some art forms but not in others, that none of these values are unique to art, that art is always extrinsically or instrumentally valuable, and there is no one kind of value that a work has as art. If art broadens ones conceptual repertoire in ways that can lead to new ways of thinking or perceiving and sometimes to new knowledge, engaging with works can also make us better thinkers and perceivers in other ways. (See Dean 2003 for skepticism about defining art based on prototype theory.) The someone in questionthe works persona fictionally utters the work.6 The easiest way to comprehend such an idea is to think of lyric poetry. Philip Alperson. One kind defines fiction in terms of pretense or make-believe. The main chapter is divided into five concise sections, which elucidate a topic by representing and assessing popular philosophical theories about the matter. Are the artistically valuable properties among the defining properties of art? is that, though integral to the works identity, the work fails to make those references integral to its aims. 2001. Rather, Kant insists that aesthetic judgments are disinterested because, he thought, we are indifferent to the existence of what is being contemplated, caring only for the contemplation itself. It is better to say that hearing an emotion in a passage of music consists in the music being perceived by a listener as the expression of the emotion by an indefinite agentthe musics persona (Levinson 1996). Gould, Carroll. It is too recent to have received much assessment as yet, and too complex to summarize here, but it is the most promising such account currently available. It is even slightly misleading to say I imagine myself in danger. we hear the emotion in the music (1995, 136). It is a further step to determine the bearing, if any, of these sorts of ethical evaluations on the artistic value 250 Chapter Twelve of such works, evaluations made independently of the attitudes the works express toward their subject matter and possibly even independently of their consequences for audiences or society. If it involves free fantasizing about anything whatsoever, then what does that have to do with the real? Oxford: Oxford University Press. 1995. One might say that, since we can figure out what water is independently of H2O tests, water and H2O are logically distinct. Some Ambiguities At this point we may feel puzzled or confused because what seemed like two very different solutions to the paradox of fiction may seem to have become hard to distinguish. Where the iron wheel is, there is also a wheel-shaped lump of iron. To flesh out this objection, recall that on several occasions above, I have appealed to convention and context to help fix properly realized intended meaning. The advantage of the persona view is that it offers a way of making intelligible puzzling phenomena like hearing an emotion in music (e.g., hearing sadness in the music or hearing the music as sad) where one is able to construe emotion as referring to a type of psychological state (not merely a phenomenal appearance). Beauty is a term of almost pure evaluation, with little descriptive content.5 This, however, is not generally the case with aesthetic terms, since some seem to make no evaluation at all. There are advocates of both approaches. My starting point is the symmetry that I claim exists between cognitive benefits that are attributed to literature by aestheticians and multiple epistemic values recognized by epistemologists. But the model does not claim either that what we actually see is a two-dimensional object, or that we pretend it is a representation. There can be objects that achieve functional success as art, in that they reward a complex set of intrinsic regards, but lack the required intention. Artworks are sad in some sense, but an intrinsic part of the problem is to better understand what this sense consists of. However, Mandelbaum observes, family resemblance is no more satisfactorily explicated in terms of an open ended set of similarities differentially shared among the familys members, for people outside the family may also possess the exhibited features without thereby bearing a family resemblance to the original set of people. Not unexpectedly, the definition rules out many items normally accepted as artworks, including some of the greatest in the western tradition, such as the plays of Shakespeare, which by Collingwoods standards are entertainment rather than art. People are intentional objects in this sense because they have intentional states (beliefs, desires, intentions), and, artworks and other objects of interpretation, are intentional objects by virtue of expressing or representing intentional states. 143 Krausz, Michael. One is not forced to this view. However, the similarities are probably more significant that the differences. Thus, such reliance is not sufficient to identify depictions. If so, we are back to square one. An additional reason is supplied by pluralism about artistic value. If one is looking at a picture of a mill, then, on the make-believe view one is imagining ones visual experience that it is the seeing of a mill. Beyond Aesthetics. 9. . Each of these claims strongly suggests that artworks have certain essential properties. Regarding aesthetic experience of nonaesthetic properties, the problem lies in the boundaries of aesthetic properties (or terms, if we are antirealists). One alternative to this sort of essentialism is contextualism. This might encourage the thought, independently encouraged by various romantic and expressivist 100 Chapter Five movements in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, that even when expression and representation co-occur, the real business of art is expression. Additional knowledge can enhance or alter our appreciative experience, but it is usually optional whether we employ such knowledge. (We will elaborate on this in chapter 11.) The economic value of a work is related to its art status, but is not part of an objects artistic value. You say that you did not know I engaged in historical research. 1997b. Is it fair? 2009. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. But this does not imply that we literally feel nothing. Preliminary Issues There are at least two senses of the word fiction that are easy to run together, but need to be distinguished for our present purpose. As I walked down the trail, I went right by the house. Consider another comparison. Academia.edu no longer supports Internet Explorer. First, it is a plausible solution to a semantic problem regarding Interpretation and the Problem of the Relevant Intention 159 utterance meaning (and work meaning if it is to be understood on the model of utterance meaning). Representation in Art. In The Oxford Handbook of Aesthetics, ed. However, there are three objections to this view. Emotion in Response to Art: a Survey of the Terrain. In Emotion and the Arts, eds. AestheticsPhilosophyPODPBK.indd 1 ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD For orders and information please contact the publisher Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc. 4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200 Lanham, Maryland 20706 1-800-462-6420 www.rowmanlittlefield.com Second Edition Praised in its original edition for its clarity and up-to-date, rigorous presentation of current debates, Robert Steckers new edition of Aesthetics and the Philosophy of Art preserves the major themes and conclusions of the original while expanding its content, providing new features, and enhancing accessibility. For this reason, any attempt to explain depiction in terms of resemblance has to specify the relevant resemblance in question. It is simply of no consequence that her success has no basis in the conventionally fixed referents of the words she happens to use. . Batesons interpretation fails to take into account two such features. 1987a. John (2006) is chiefly responsible for this argument, but Jacobson (2006) endorses it too. What it does not do is tell us what depiction is. I have also said nothing as yet about the degree of objectivity, if any, of evaluative judgments of architecture. 1993 The Fine Art of Repetition. 1997. The Aesthetic Function of Art. Tolhurst, William. ed. Things are typically aesthetically better for being vivid.1 Do all of the properties mentioned above give value to objects? Originality and imagination 6. Attention to context is one such constraint. The consequences of a work on its audience and beyond can be good or bad (or both good and bad) and works can be ethically evaluated for having such consequences or for having the potential (the capacity) to produce them. The argument is that one has to experience the bad to understand the good. The restriction on evidence is that direct pronouncements of intention by the artist are off limits (Levinson 1996, 175213). Elaborate as this condition is, I will argue that, taken in one way (the most natural or literal way), it is insufficient to guarantee poetic expression, while taken in another way, it provides a sufficient condition for expression, but it is more clearly put in other terms. Even if Bell can successfully identify significant form, his definition is not satisfactory. However, many of the items on the original list require no more than ordinary abilitiessuch as the second order perceptual properties. This does not imply that a nonexistent person has the property of being a prince. Those who accept this assumption are in a position to explore the nature of the aesthetic (aesthetic experiences, aesthetic properties, aesthetic judgments, aesthetic values) wherever it occursnature, art, and artifacts. It is often said that when we think something is aesthetically good, we value it for its own sake or as an end, rather than for something else it brings about or as a means. 2000. 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